neurotrophic factor comes up often in conversation and rarely with the context attached. Here we lay out the basics in order, then work through the practical considerations.
Updated 2026-02-14. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Heptapeptide; ACTH(4-10) analog extended at C-terminus |
| Molecular mass | ~813.9 Da | Free peptide, unmodified |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water and saline | Also soluble in common aqueous buffers |
| Storage (solid) | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from moisture and repeated thawing |
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
On March 14, 2016, a National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) administrative law judge concluded that Chipotle's social media policy, and more specifically its application towards an employee who posted tweets regarding wages and working conditions, violated the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA). A former Chipotle employee in Havertown, Pennsylvania, wrote a series of tweets from his personal account about hourly workers being required to work on snow days. Chipotle instructed the employee to delete the tweets. The NLRB judge determined that Chipotle's request to delete the tweets violated the NLRA even though the employee was not disciplined as a result of his tweets. In July 2021, Chipotle rolled out limited edition gold foil at participating locations to celebrate American athletes competing in Tokyo at the 2020 Summer Olympics. On October 28, 2021, Chipotle announced $1 million of burritos to be given away for free for the first 30,000 people to play the Chipotle experience on the video game Roblox. The site ended up experiencing a three-day outage, but the company clarified that it was not the fault of Chipotle. On February 16, 2023, MoneyGram Haas F1 Team announced a sponsorship deal with Chipotle. The Chipotle logo will be featured on both the nose and side of the VF-23, race-suits of drivers Kevin Magnussen and Nico Hulkenberg and team apparel.
Nine of the 15 patients had a Glasgow coma scale (GCS) of 15, indicating they were in a normal mental state; four had a GCS below 8, but these patients all reported using a central nervous system depressant, most commonly GHB, with mephedrone. The patients also reported polydrug use of a variety of compounds.
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and together they form the protein requirements in formula needed for growth and development. The amino acids are in the simplest form, making it easy for the body to process and digest. Amino acid-based formula may be considered hypoallergenic since it does not contain peptides that may trigger an immune response. Because infants and children have different nutritional needs, amino acid-based formulas are typically formulated either for infants 0–1 years of age or for children 1–10 years of age. Amino acid-based formulas may be used for those with cow's milk or soy protein allergy. However, most infants who suffer from food allergy respond well to extensively hydrolysed formulas, and only few of those with the most severe form of the illness require the use of amino acid-based formulas. It may also be used for other medical conditions requiring an amino acid-based diet, such as short bowel syndrome, and for transition from parenteral to enteral nutrition. Milk allergy Food allergy
Upregulation of receptors is the increase in receptor number or sensitivity of receptors. The receptors involved in functional antagonism are regulated in sensitivity, number and location. Therefore, changes in receptors are common. Using a long-term antagonist drug or continuous exposure to an antagonist may cause the upregulation and hypersensitivity of receptors, which means an increase in the number and sensitivity of receptors. The increase in the number of receptors is due to the increased expression of receptors after prolonged inhibition. The upregulation of receptors is important in the clinical aspect. One example of upregulation of receptors is the upregulation of β-receptors caused by β receptor antagonists (also called β-blocker). The prolonged use of β-blockers results in the blockade of β-receptors, causing cells (mainly myocardial cells) to increase their expression of β-receptor. After removing the blockage, more receptors available for stimulation, resulting in higher sensitivity of β-receptors called the hypersensitivity of β-receptors. Abrupt discontinuation of β-blocker may potentially aggravate coronary artery disease, tachycardia, or even sudden cardiac death. Therefore, to prevent the adverse effects, doses of β-blocker must be reduced gradually over 10–14 days.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Trimebutine nitroarginate and derivatives – arginine nitro-derivative acts as a nitric oxide donor, which exerts anti-inflammatory effect (similarly to naproxcinod) Trimebutine thiocarbamoylbenzoate – thioamide group acts as a hydrogen sulfide donor, also acting as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic agent
Haji-Sheikh, Haji-Sheikh & Naples (2026) present new cranial endocasts of Smilodon fatalis, and calculate that the range of brain endocast volumes of the studied species overlaps with the published range of brain volumes of modern lions. Evidence of utility of CT and MicroCT scans in determining the condition of tooth sockets in skulls of Smilodon fatalis from the La Brea Tar Pits, as well as in determining whether the canines of the studied specimens were correctly associated and correctly seated in tooth sockets during restoration of the skulls, is presented by Haji-Sheikh, Haji-Sheikh & Naples (2026). Schmökel, Del Chicca & Hagen Argudin Pina (2026) identify pathologies in three vertebrae of Smilodon fatalis from the La Brea Tar Pits, interpreted as consistent with the diagnosis of a spinal nerve tumor. Fernández-Jalvo et al. (2026) identify tooth marks of Smilodon on bones of Toxodon, Notiomastodon, Doedicurus, Glossotherium and Lestodon from the Pleistocene strata from the Salto de Piedra site (Argentina). A felid mandible interpreted as the most definitive fossil material of Homotherium latidens from Anatolia reported to date is described from the Burdur Basin (Turkey) by Yavuz et al. (2026). Nikolskiy et al. (2026) report the discovery of canines of Homotherium in the late Pleistocene strata from Suruktakh in the Kolyma River basin and from the Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island (Russia), comfirming presence of members of this genus in northeastern Siberia approximately 41,500–37,500 years ago.
Peritonitis is the inflammation of the peritoneum. It is more commonly associated to infection from a punctured organ of the abdominal cavity. It can also be provoked by the presence of fluids that produce chemical irritation, such as gastric acid or pancreatic juice. Peritonitis causes fever, tenderness, and pain in the abdominal area, which can be localized or diffuse. The treatment involves rehydration, administration of antibiotics, and surgical correction of the underlying cause. Mortality is higher in the elderly and if present for a prolonged time.
== Pathology == Both acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate are acidic, and, if levels of these ketone bodies are too high, the pH of the blood drops, resulting in ketoacidosis. Ketoacidosis is known to occur in untreated type I diabetes (see diabetic ketoacidosis) and in alcoholics after prolonged binge-drinking without intake of sufficient carbohydrates (see alcoholic ketoacidosis). The production and use of ketones can be ineffective in people with defects in the pathway for beta-oxidation, in the genes for ketogenesis (HMGCS2 and HMGCL), or for ketolysis (OXCT1 and ACAT1). Defects in this pathway can cause varying degrees of inability to cope with fasting. HMGCS2 deficiency, for example, can cause hypoglycemic crises that lead to brain damage, and death. Individuals with diabetes mellitus can experience overproduction of ketone bodies due to a lack of insulin. Without insulin to help extract glucose from the blood, the levels of malonyl-CoA are reduced, and it becomes easier for fatty acids to be transported into mitochondria, causing the accumulation of excess acetyl-CoA. The accumulation of acetyl-CoA in turn produces excess ketone bodies through ketogenesis. The result is a rate of ketone production higher than the rate of ketone disposal, and a decrease in blood pH. In extreme cases the resulting acetone can be detected in the patient's breath as a faint, sweet odor. There are some health benefits to ketone bodies and ketogenesis as well. It has been suggested that a low-carb, high fat ketogenic diet can be used to help treat epilepsy in children.
In 66 AD, the Roman tribune Neapolitanus met with King Agrippa II in Iamnia, to inform him of his mission to investigate the situation in Jerusalem, following Florus' seizure of Temple funds and clashes between Jews and Roman troops. Later, in spring 68 AD, after the Roman army under Vespasian quelled the insurrection in Galilee, the army marched upon Iamnia and Azotus, taking both towns and stationing garrisons within them. Following the failure of the revolt and the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism underwent significant reform in Yavne. According to rabbinic tradition, Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai and his disciples were permitted to settle in Iamnia during the outbreak of the war, after ben Zakkai, realizing that Jerusalem was about to fall, departed the city and sought the permission of Vespasian, commander of the Roman forces, to settle in Yavne and teach his disciples. Upon the fall of Jerusalem, his school functioned as a Sanhedrin. It was also theorized for some time to have been the site of a supposed Council of Jamnia that established the rabbinic Jewish biblical canon (although current scholarship largely rejects the theory that such a council in fact occurred). According to the Jerusalem Talmud (Berakhot 1:4), when the rabbis argued over some fine point of Jewish law, a Divine voice (Hebrew: bat ḳol) was heard in Yavne, ruling in favor of the School of Hillel.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.
Its sequence corresponds to the 4-10 region of corticotropin extended by three residues. This fragment lacks the region responsible for adrenal steroid release, so it is explored for neural rather than hormonal effects. The relationship explains the compound's classification among ACTH-derived peptides.
It holds approval in Russia for several neurological indications as a nasal spray or drop formulation. Regulatory agencies in the United States and the European Union have not approved it. Products sold elsewhere are generally labeled for research use only.
不存在。它是依据 ACTH 的一段序列人工设计的分子，天然蛋白质中找不到与之完全相同的七肽。名称属于研究代号，而非天然物质名。