nasal formulation comes up often in conversation and rarely with the context attached. Here we lay out the basics in order, then work through the practical considerations.
Updated 2026-02-06. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
溶液状态的稳定性明显低于冻干粉。肽类在水溶液中可能经历水解、氧化与聚集，其中甲硫氨酸和天冬酰胺等残基常是敏感位点。Semax 含有甲硫氨酸，因此氧化风险相对突出。工作液一般主张现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用尽。缓冲液种类、pH 和离子强度都会影响降解速率，而关于最佳条件的公开数据并不统一。
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Seven-residue peptide |
| Molecular mass | 813.9 Da | Monoisotopic value |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized form |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also soluble in saline and polar solvents |
| Storage (dry) | -20 °C or lower | Desiccated, protected from light |
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
稳定性主要由水解与氧化两条路径支配。肽键在中性或弱酸性条件下相对稳定，遇到强碱或长时间高温则明显断裂；甲硫氨酸侧链容易被氧化成亚砜，使主峰前移并拉低实际含量。金属离子、光照和反复冻融会进一步促进降解或聚集。冻干粉在低温避光条件下可存放较长时间，配制后的水溶液通常需要冷藏并尽快用完。
纯度评估以反相高效液相色谱为主，通过主峰面积百分比给出粗略结果，再配合电喷雾质谱核对分子量。氨基酸分析可验证组成比例，手性色谱或毛细管电泳用于检查残基构型。常见杂质包括缺失序列的短肽、氧化产物与二聚体。由于多数市售品不附带完整检验报告，独立第三方检测常被用来核实标称值。
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Published studies are dominated by animal models of stroke, ischemia, and cognitive impairment, with a smaller number of human trials conducted in Russia. Many of the human reports are small, single-center, and published in Russian-language journals, which limits independent scrutiny. Outcome measures vary between studies and often rely on clinician-rated scales rather than objective biomarkers. Systematic reviews have noted the methodological weaknesses and called for larger, preregistered trials before firm conclusions can be drawn.
Claims about enhanced focus, memory, or mood in healthy people rest mostly on anecdotal reports and community discussion rather than on controlled data. It remains unclear whether any cognitive benefit observed in patients recovering from brain injury would extend to uninjured users. Dose-response relationships, long-term safety, and interactions with other drugs are not well characterized in the peer-reviewed literature. Questions about optimal route of administration and treatment duration likewise remain open.
Semax binds to melanocortin receptors and is thought to influence neuronal survival and plasticity rather than to act through the adrenal axis. Laboratory work has shown increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in treated tissue. Changes in c-Fos, a marker of neuronal activation, have also been reported. Because the peptide is rapidly degraded by peptidases, its effects are generally attributed to downstream signaling cascades rather than to sustained receptor occupancy.
A neurotransmitter sodium symporter (NSS) (TC# 2.A.22) is a type of neurotransmitter transporter that catalyzes the uptake of a variety of neurotransmitters, amino acids, osmolytes and related nitrogenous substances by a solute:Na+ symport mechanism. The NSS family is a member of the APC superfamily. Its constituents have been found in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes.
=== Malachite green === Malachite green (also known as diamond green B or victoria green B) can be used as a blue-green counterstain to safranin in the Gimenez staining technique for bacteria. It can also be used to directly stain spores.
== Treatment == Many people with beriberi can be treated with thiamine alone. Given thiamine intravenously (and later orally), rapid and dramatic recovery occurs, generally within 24 hours. Improvements of peripheral neuropathy may require several months of thiamine treatment.
Unterberg, Towbin Mehmet Omer Koç (1985), Turkish billionaire and member of the prominent Koç family of Turkey; son of billionaire Rahmi Koç and grandson of Vehbi Koç; chairman of Koç Holding, Turkey's largest conglomerate Nikolas Tsakos (1985), Greek shipping magnate, former chairman of the International Association of Independent Tanker Owners and husband of Greek fashion designer Celia Kritharioti Noam Gottesman (1986), billionaire, hedge fund manager, and co-founder of GLG Partners Daniel Ninivaggi (1986), CEO of Lordstown Motors and chairman of Garrett Motion, former CEO of Federal-Mogul and CEO of Icahn Enterprises Alex Navab (1987), head of the Americas Private Equity Business of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts Ben Horowitz (1988), technology entrepreneur, co-founder of software company Opsware and venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz, son of conservative writer David Horowitz '59 Dirk Edward Ziff (1988), billionaire businessman, son of publishing magnate William Bernard Ziff Jr.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Metabolism ==== Atenolol undergoes minimal or negligible metabolism by the liver. It has been estimated that about 5% of atenolol is metabolized. This is in contrast to other beta blockers like propranolol and metoprolol, but is similar to nadolol. In accordance with its lack of hepatic metabolism, the pharmacokinetics of atenolol are not altered in hepatic impairment, unlike the case of propranolol. Two metabolites of atenolol have been identified: hydroxyatenolol and atenolol glucuronide. It has been said that it is unknown if these metabolites are active. However, another source stated that hydroxyatenolol has one-tenth the beta-blocking activity of atenolol.
Oral tablets and capsules 5 mg (brand names Eldepryl, Jumex, and generics) – indicated for Parkinson's disease Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) 1.25 mg (brand name Zelapar) – indicated for Parkinson's disease Transdermal patches 6, 9, and 12 mg/24 hours (brand name Emsam) – indicated for major depressive disorder
== Habitat == When first discovered, Roseiflexus castenholzii was isolated from the lowest layer of a three layered bacterial mat; the top two layers contained cyanobacteria and Chloroflexus spp. These mats were found in multiple Japanese hot springs ranging in temperature from 45.5 °C to 68.5 °C and with a neutral to alkaline pH range. This bacterium is able to grow photoheterotrophically under anaerobic light conditions and chemoheterotrophically under aerobic dark conditions. Optimal growth conditions for this organism are 50 °C and pH 7.5–8.0. The first isolated type strain was HLO8T (= DSM 13941T = JCM 11240T).
Today, the "exteroceptors" are the organs that provide information originating outside the body, such as the eyes, ears, mouth, and skin. The interoceptors provide information about the internal organs, and the "proprioceptors" provide information about movement derived from muscular, tendon, and articular sources. Using Sherrington's system, physiologists and anatomists search for specialised nerve endings that transmit mechanical data on joint capsule, tendon and muscle tension (such as Golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles), which play a large role in proprioception. Primary endings of muscle spindles "respond to the size of a muscle length change and its speed" and "contribute both to the sense of limb position and movement". Secondary endings of muscle spindles detect changes in muscle length, and thus supply information regarding only the sense of position. Essentially, muscle spindles are stretch receptors. It has been accepted that cutaneous receptors also contribute directly to proprioception by providing "accurate perceptual information about joint position and movement", and this knowledge is combined with information from the muscle spindles.
== Studies and research == A number of studies have been issued in regard to chocolate milk nutrition. A 2005 study by the New York City Department of Education found that by removing whole milk and replacing it with low-fat or fat-free chocolate milk, students were served an estimated 5,960 fewer calories and 619 fewer grams of fat per year. However, more recent studies show that fat-free and low-fat milk may actually increase body fat and contribute to obesity. Whole milk may in fact be healthier for obese children than low-fat or non-fat milk. An April 2007 study from Loughborough University indicated that low-fat milk was an effective rehydration drink. A November 2009 study conducted by scientists in Barcelona, Spain, suggests that regularly consuming skimmed milk with cocoa rich in flavonoids may reduce inflammation and slow or prevent the development of atherosclerosis. The study notes that its effects are not as pronounced as seen in consumption of red wine. However, in a single serving of cocoa, other researchers found 611 milligrams of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) and 564 milligrams of epicatechin equivalents (ECE), compared with 340 milligrams of GAE and 163 milligrams of ECE in red wine, and 165 milligrams of GAE and 47 milligrams of ECE in green tea. A study published in 2009 compared chocolate milk to a commercial recovery beverage (matched for carbohydrate and protein content) administered to cyclists after intense workouts.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Notable people == Avior Byron (born 1973), singer, songwriter, and musicologist Omri Casspi (born 1988), Israeli professional NBA basketball player Itai Chammah (born 1985), Olympic swimmer Gil Dor, guitar player Elishay Kadir (born 1987), basketball player Uri Kokia (born 1981), basketball player and coach Shlomi Koriat (born 1976), actor and comedian Maor Melikson, footballer Nevo Mizrahi (born 1987), footballer Mushail Mushailov, artist Ido Nehoshtan, Major-General (ret.), former chief of Israeli Air Force Shabak Samech, rap and hip-hop group Meir Sheetrit (born 1948), Israeli Minister of the Interior
== Properties == Like some other aldehydes, phenylglyoxal polymerizes upon standing, as indicated by solidification of the liquid. Upon heating, this polymer "cracks" to give back the yellow aldehyde. Dissolution of phenylglyoxal in water gives crystals of the hydrate:
=== Available forms === Ciclosporin exhibits very poor solubility in water, and, as a consequence, suspension and emulsion forms of the medication have been developed for oral administration and for injection. Ciclosporin was originally brought to market by Sandoz (now Novartis), under the brand name Sandimmune, which is available as soft gelatin capsules, an oral solution, and a formulation for intravenous administration. These are all nonaqueous compositions. A newer microemulsion, orally-administered formulation, Neoral, is available as a solution and as soft gelatin capsules. Compositions of Neoral are designed to form microemulsions in contact with water. Generic ciclosporin preparations have been marketed under various brand names, including Cicloral (by Sandoz/Hexal), Gengraf (by Abbott) and Deximune (by Dexcel Pharma). Since 2002, a topical emulsion of ciclosporin for treating inflammation caused by keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye syndrome) has been marketed under the brand name Restasis. Ikervis is a similar formulation with a concentration of 0.1%. Inhaled ciclosporin formulations are in clinical development, and include a solution in propylene glycol and liposome dispersions.
Portugal's education system is organised into preschool education; school education, encompassing basic, secondary and higher education; and extracurricular education, which includes continuing education. Optional preschool is provided for all children between three and five years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for 12 years. Basic education lasts nine years and is divided into three cycles, while secondary education is organised into academic and vocational pathways. Higher education is provided by universities and polytechnic institutions in accordance with the Bologna Process, with the University of Lisbon being the country's largest university by enrolment. A general requirement for higher education are the exames finais nacionais do ensino secundário. Most secondary-school students continue their studies at public higher education institutions or the Military Academy, which also awards university degrees. Although other European countries began investing in education in the 19th century, Portugal's long-established national identity, stable borders and homogeneous population contributed to a lack of political commitment to educational development until the First Republic in the early 20th century; many of its reforms were subsequently reversed under the Estado Novo, whose deliberate neglect of education contributed to Portugal recording Europe's highest illiteracy rate in 1964; following democratisation in 1974, education became more widely accessible and underwent modernisation.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.
The extension was introduced to slow enzymatic breakdown of the peptide in biological systems. Natural ACTH fragments are degraded rapidly by peptidases. Adding the tripeptide was intended to extend the window during which the molecule remains intact.
Most published work consists of animal experiments conducted in a small number of laboratories. Human data are limited in number and size. Whether the observed effects translate into reliable clinical benefit is still unresolved.
一般不建议常温长期保存。多数说明指向 -20 °C 冷冻避光。常温运输通常被视为短期可接受，但会加快降解风险。