If you have been reading about nootropic and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-06-10. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Semax 是一种人工合成的七肽，氨基酸序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，单字母缩写记作 MEHFPGP。它被归类为促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10) 的结构类似物，但并不天然存在于生物体内。母体片段 ACTH(4-10) 的序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly，Semax 替换了中间两个残基，并在羧基端延长了 Pro-Gly-Pro 三肽。这种延长被普遍认为能提升分子对肽酶的耐受性。
该化合物于二十世纪八十年代在俄罗斯被开发，相关工作由俄罗斯科学院分子遗传学研究所的研究团队主导。开发目标并非复制 ACTH 的完整激素活性，而是寻找保留其神经作用方向、同时去除促肾上腺皮质激素释放效应的短肽片段。研究记录显示，这一方向促成了多个相关短肽的合成与筛选，而 Semax 是其中被研究最广泛的一个。当地文献常以 Семакс 这一名称指代它。
研究兴趣主要集中在神经营养因子相关的路径上，包括脑源性神经营养因子与神经生长因子的表达变化。部分实验报告称在特定条件下观察到这些因子的水平上升，但具体信号通路和剂量依赖关系仍未完全厘清。多数公开数据来自细胞模型和动物实验，人体对照研究数量有限。因此，该化合物的作用机制在文献中属于活跃讨论，而非已经确立的定论。
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学类别 | 合成七肽 | ACTH(4-10) 结构类似物 |
| 氨基酸序列 | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | 单字母写作 MEHFPGP |
| 分子量 | 约 813.9 Da | 随确切形式和盐型略有变化 |
| 常见同义词 | ACTH(4-10) 类似物 | 俄语文献称 Семакс |
| 开发来源 | 俄罗斯 | 二十世纪八十年代 |
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
=== 22 April === An unexploded bomb was discovered in Belgorod, forcing the evacuation of more than three thousand people from seventeen apartment buildings in the surrounding area. The bomb was removed according to Vyacheslav Gladkov, the local governor. This was the same area where a bomb from an Su-34 was dropped on 20 April.
== Preparation and composition == Some Native Americans used mashed pumpkin or devil's club as a poultice. In addition to bread and cereals, bran may also be used as a poultice because of its absorbent quality. It is packed into the wound and then covered with a piece of sacking or similar material before being bandaged onto the site of the wound. There are also many commercial poultices that are ready-made. Some of these may be labeled as "drawing salves". Ash poultices can cause a chemical burn.
sGC expression has been shown to be highest in the striatum compared to other brain regions and has been explored as a possible candidate for restoring striatal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. sGC acts as an intracellular intermediary for regulating dopamine and glutamate. Upregulation, which creates neuronal sensitivity, of the cGMP in a dopamine-depleted striatum has been associated with the symptoms of Parkinson's. Increased intracellular cGMP has been shown to contribute to excessive neuron excitability and locomotor activity. Activation of this pathway can also stimulate presynaptic glutamate release and cause an upregulation of AMPA receptors postsynaptically.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Radioactive thorium was used in the 1950s and 60s to treat tuberculosis and other benign diseases (including children), with serious consequences (see Peteosthor). A stabilized suspension of colloidal thorium(IV) oxide, co-developed by António Egas Moniz (1874-1954), was used from 1929 under the trade name Thorotrast as an X-ray contrast agent for angiography in several million patients worldwide until it was banned in the mid-1950s. It accumulates in the reticulohistiocytic system and can lead to cancer due to locally increased radiation exposure. The same is true for cholangiocarcinoma and angiosarcoma of the liver, two rare liver cancers. Carcinomas of the paranasal sinuses have also been described following administration of Thorotrast. Typical onset of disease is 30–35 years after exposure. The biological half-life of Thorotrast is approximately 400 years. The largest study in this area was conducted in Germany in 2004 and showed a particularly high mortality rate among patients exposed in this way. The median life expectancy over a seventy-year observation period was 14 years shorter than in the comparison group.
Apothecia (fruiting bodies) are rare in Parmotrema perlatum. When present, they measure 4–8 mm across and are somewhat stalked and funnel-shaped with a brown, concave disc. The edges of these structures curl inward, becoming thick with soredia as they mature. Its spores are ellipsoid in shape and typically measure between 20 and 28 μm in length and 11 to 17 μm in width, with a wall thickness of 2–3 μm. Pycnidia, which are structures that produce asexual spores called conidia, appear sporadically on the surface (laminal) of the thallus, with the conidia being thread-like and straight, measuring 6–8 by 1 μm.
== Side effects == Adverse effects of vinblastine include hair loss, loss of white blood cells and blood platelets, gastrointestinal problems, high blood pressure, excessive sweating, depression, muscle cramps, vertigo and headaches. As a vesicant, vinblastine can cause extensive tissue damage and blistering if it escapes from the vein from improper administration.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2), also known as G-protein coupled receptor 43 (GPR43), is a rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) encoded by the FFAR2 gene. In humans, the FFAR2 gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 19 at position 13.12 (19q13.12). FFAR2, like other GPCRs, is located on the cell membrane and is activated by binding specific ligands, regulating various cellular functions. FFAR2 is part of the free fatty acid receptor family, which also includes FFAR1 (GPR40), FFAR3 (GPR41), and FFAR4 (GPR120). FFAR2 and FFAR3 are activated by short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), while FFAR1 and FFAR4 respond to long-chain fatty acids. SCFAs, produced by intestinal bacteria, play a key role in various bodily functions by activating FFAR2. This receptor is implicated in regulating insulin and glucose levels, inflammation, fat tissue development, and certain cancerous and non-cancerous cell growth. Due to its role in these processes, FFAR2 has been studied for its potential involvement in conditions such as diabetes, inflammation, obesity, ketoacidosis, certain types of cancer, neurological diseases, and infections. Therapies targeting FFAR2 are being developed to modulate its activity in these conditions, offering potential new treatments for diseases influenced by SCFAs.
The skeletal system serves many important functions; it provides the shape and form for the body, support and protection, allows bodily movement, produces blood for the body, and stores minerals. The number of bones in the human skeletal system is a controversial topic. Humans are born with over 300 bones; however, many bones fuse together between birth and maturity. As a result, an average adult skeleton consists of 206 bones. The number of bones varies according to the method used to derive the count. While some consider certain structures to be a single bone with multiple parts, others may see it as a single part with multiple bones. There are five general classifications of bones. These are long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones. The human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It is a complex structure with two distinct divisions; the axial skeleton, which includes the vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton.
Damage to skeletal muscle may take various forms. Crush and other physical injuries cause damage to muscle cells directly or interfere with blood supply, while non-physical causes interfere with muscle cell metabolism. When damaged, muscle tissue rapidly fills with fluid from the bloodstream, including sodium ions. The swelling itself may lead to destruction of muscle cells, but those cells that survive are subject to various disruptions that lead to rise in intracellular calcium ions; the accumulation of calcium outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum leads to continuous muscle contraction and depletion of ATP, the main carrier of energy in the cell. ATP depletion can itself lead to uncontrolled calcium influx. The persistent contraction of the muscle cell leads to the breakdown of intracellular proteins and the disintegration of the cell. Neutrophil granulocytes—the most abundant type of white blood cell—enter the muscle tissue, producing an inflammatory reaction and releasing reactive oxygen species, particularly after crush injury. Crush syndrome may also cause reperfusion injury when blood flow to decompressed muscle is suddenly restored. The swollen, inflamed muscle may directly compress structures in the same fascial compartment, causing compartment syndrome. The swelling may also further compromise the blood supply to the area. Finally, destroyed muscle cells release potassium ions, phosphate ions, the heme-containing protein myoglobin, the enzyme creatine kinase and uric acid (a breakdown product of purines from DNA) into the blood.
== Lecturing and media == Pert lectured worldwide on peptide and other subjects, including her theories on emotions and mind-body communication. Her popular book, Molecules of Emotion: Why You Feel the Way You Feel, (Scribner, 1997) expounded on her research and theories. She was featured in Washingtonian magazine (December 2001) as one of Washington's fifty "Best and Brightest" individuals. The Sydney Morning Herald profiled Pert in 2004:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
不是。Semax 是完全人工合成的七肽，自然界中没有对应的已知肽段。它的设计灵感来自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)，但序列经过了替换和延长。
Semax 被描述为 ACTH(4-10) 的结构类似物，两者共享部分序列特征。它保留了该片段的部分神经相关活性方向，但去除了完整片段带来的激素释放效应。二者并非同一物质，也不能互相替代。
加入的 Pro-Gly-Pro 三肽被普遍认为能提升分子对蛋白水解酶的稳定性。这种设计让短肽在体内维持时间更长。具体延长的程度以及不同组织中是否一致，文献中仍存在不同报告。
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.