This is a working overview of lyophilised powder, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-06-10 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
Solid semax is typically supplied as a lyophilised powder that is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture, light, and repeated temperature cycling. Long-term storage of the dry peptide is generally recommended at approximately -20 degrees Celsius, while shorter working periods may use refrigeration at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius. Vials should remain tightly closed and desiccated when brought to room temperature, because condensation can damage the material before it is weighed. Dividing a batch into aliquots is preferable to thawing one container repeatedly.
Dissolution is normally performed in water, phosphate-buffered saline, or normal saline, since the peptide is freely soluble in aqueous media and is rarely handled with strong organic solvents. Solution pH should be kept near neutral, because extreme acidity or alkalinity accelerates backbone hydrolysis and encourages oxidation of the methionine side chain. Once dissolved, the material is less stable than the dry powder and is commonly divided into single-use portions and frozen. Buffers containing primary amines, such as Tris, are often avoided because of possible side reactions.
Purity assessment relies mainly on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, which separates the target heptapeptide from truncated sequences, deletion analogues, and oxidised forms. Mass spectrometry, usually coupled to liquid chromatography, confirms identity through the expected molecular ion and reveals modifications such as methionine sulfoxide formation. Amino acid analysis can verify composition, and tandem mass spectrometry supports sequence confirmation. Ultraviolet detection near 254 to 280 nanometres is convenient because the phenylalanine and histidine residues absorb in that region. Nuclear magnetic resonance is rarely used for routine release testing.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Heptapeptide; ACTH(4-10) analog extended at C-terminus |
| Molecular mass | ~813.9 Da | Free peptide, unmodified |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water and saline | Also soluble in common aqueous buffers |
| Storage (solid) | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from moisture and repeated thawing |
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Published studies are dominated by animal models of stroke, ischemia, and cognitive impairment, with a smaller number of human trials conducted in Russia. Many of the human reports are small, single-center, and published in Russian-language journals, which limits independent scrutiny. Outcome measures vary between studies and often rely on clinician-rated scales rather than objective biomarkers. Systematic reviews have noted the methodological weaknesses and called for larger, preregistered trials before firm conclusions can be drawn.
Claims about enhanced focus, memory, or mood in healthy people rest mostly on anecdotal reports and community discussion rather than on controlled data. It remains unclear whether any cognitive benefit observed in patients recovering from brain injury would extend to uninjured users. Dose-response relationships, long-term safety, and interactions with other drugs are not well characterized in the peer-reviewed literature. Questions about optimal route of administration and treatment duration likewise remain open.
8% w/v Na2CO3·H2O (CAS: 5968-11-6) 1.6% w/v NaOH (CAS: 1310-73-2) 1.6% w/v Na2 tartrate (CAS: 868-18-8) (10x concentration as Reagent A in Original BCA Assay above) Sufficient NaHCO3 (CAS: 144-55-8) to adjust pH to 11.25 Micro-Reagent B (MB)
Keller also plans on opening his own burger restaurant inspired by his Los Angeles experience of In-N-Out. Julia Child, one of the first celebrities to champion the chain, admitted to knowing every location of the restaurant between Santa Barbara and San Francisco. Child also had the burgers delivered to her during a hospital stay. Anthony Bourdain reportedly said that In-N-Out was his favorite fast food meal, later naming the restaurant as "the best restaurant in Los Angeles". Ina Garten at an interview at Today show said "I have to say, I don't eat fast food at all, with one exception. When we're in California doing book tours, we always have to go to In-N-Out Burger. It's so good and I know it was Julia Child's favorite too, so it's okay." In-N-Out was one of the few restaurant chains mentioned positively in the book Fast Food Nation. The book commended the chain for using natural and fresh ingredients and for looking after the interests of employees regarding pay and benefits. An In-N-Out food truck catered Vanity Fair's 2012 Academy Awards after party.
Genetic screens conducted in Drosophila led to the identification of several proteins that play a central role in Notch signaling, including Enhancer of split, Master mind, Delta, Suppressor of Hairless (CSL), and Serrate. At the same time, the Notch gene was successfully sequenced and cloned, providing insights into the molecular architecture of Notch proteins and led to identification of Notch homologs in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and eventually in mammals. In the early 1990s Notch was increasingly implicated as the receptor of a previously unknown intercellular signal pathway in which the Notch intercellular domain (NICD) is transported to the nucleus where it acts as a transcription factor to directly regulate target genes. The release of the NICD was found to be as a result of proteolytic cleavage of the transmembrane protein through the actions of the γ-secretase complex catalytic subunit Presenilin. This was a significant interaction as Presenilin is implicated in the development of Alzheimer's disease. This and further research into the mechanism of Notch signaling led to research that would further connect Notch to a wide range of human diseases.
John James Rickard Macleod (6 September 1876 – 16 March 1935), was a Scottish biochemist and physiologist. He devoted his career to diverse topics in physiology and biochemistry, but was chiefly interested in carbohydrate metabolism. He is noted for his role in the discovery and isolation of insulin during his tenure as a lecturer at the University of Toronto, for which he and Frederick Banting received the 1923 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine. Awarding the prize to Macleod was controversial at the time, because according to Banting's version of events, Macleod's role in the discovery was negligible. It was not until decades after the events that an independent review acknowledged a far greater role than was attributed to him at first.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Selenium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) National Institutes of Health page on Selenium Assay Archived 2012-02-26 at the Wayback Machine ATSDR – Toxicological Profile: Selenium CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Peter van der Krogt elements site
=== Bacteria === Bacteria secrete proteases to hydrolyse the peptide bonds in proteins and therefore break the proteins down into their constituent amino acids. Bacterial and fungal proteases are particularly important to the global carbon and nitrogen cycles in the recycling of proteins, and such activity tends to be regulated by nutritional signals in these organisms. The net impact of nutritional regulation of protease activity among the thousands of species present in soil can be observed at the overall microbial community level as proteins are broken down in response to carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur limitation. Bacteria contain proteases responsible for general protein quality control (e.g. the AAA+ proteasome) by degrading unfolded or misfolded proteins. A secreted bacterial protease may also act as an exotoxin, and be an example of a virulence factor in bacterial pathogenesis (for example, exfoliative toxin). Bacterial exotoxic proteases destroy extracellular structures.
=== Effects === A spasm may lead to muscle strains or tears in tendons and ligaments if the force of the spasm exceeds the tensile strength of the underlying connective tissue. This can occur with a particularly strong spasm or with weakened connective tissue.
== Geographic distribution == TEV appears to be a virus that evolved in the New World. It has been reported in Canada, the United States (including Hawaii), Mexico and Puerto Rico in North America and in Venezuela in South America.
==== Oxidation of biomass ==== Formic acid can also be obtained by aqueous catalytic partial oxidation of wet biomass by the OxFA process. A Keggin-type polyoxometalate (H5PV2Mo10O40) is used as the homogeneous catalyst to convert sugars, wood, waste paper, or cyanobacteria to formic acid and CO2 as the sole byproduct. Yields of up to 53% formic acid can be achieved.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Financial markets === While futures for the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the Nasdaq-100, and the S&P 500 fell before U.S. stock exchanges opened on the day after Powell's announcement, all three indexes ultimately closed higher at the end of trading on January 12. However, the U.S. Dollar Index showed the dollar falling against other major currencies in the foreign exchange markets, while the price of gold in commodity markets hit a record high, and the yield on the 10-year United States Treasury note rose, and the yield curve between the 2-year and 10-year Treasury notes steepened. The Dow Jones, the Nasdaq, and the S&P 500 saw sell-offs over the next two days with concerns among investors about Federal Reserve independence contributing to the declines, along with news about the Trump administration's response to the 2025–2026 Iranian protests, comments by Trump that Microsoft would make changes to absorb the electricity costs of the data centers used for its artificial intelligence products, as well as Trump's proposed ceiling on credit card interest rates and continued calls for the United States to acquire Greenland. The dollar weakened further on January 14 after recovering the day before on the release of U.S. Consumer Price Index data, both gold and silver prices hit record highs on both days, while yields on 2-year and 10-year Treasury notes fell despite break-even inflation on the 10-year Treasury note rising on January 13.
==== Atmosphere- and pressure-dependent plasma processing ==== Plasma processing provides interfacial energies and injected monomer fragments larger than comparable processes. However, limited fluxes prevent high process rates. In addition, plasmas are thermodynamically unfavorable and therefore plasma-processed surfaces lack uniformity, consistency, and permanence. These obstacles with plasma processing preclude it from being a competitive surface modification method within industry. The process begins with production of plasma via ionization either by deposition on monomer mixtures or gaseous carrier ions. The power required to produce the necessary plasma flux can be derived from the active volume mass/energy balance:
Buprenorphine is an opioid used to treat opioid use disorder, acute pain, and chronic pain. It is administered under the tongue, in the cheek, by injection (intravenous or subcutaneous), or as a skin patch or implant. Maximum pain relief generally occurs within an hour and lasts up to 24 hours. In the United States, buprenorphine/naloxone (Suboxone) is usually prescribed to discourage injection misuse. Both formulations are Schedule III controlled substances. Buprenorphine acts as an agonist, partial agonist, or antagonist at different opioid receptors. It relieves opioid withdrawal and reduces the effects of other opioids. Unlike full agonists such as heroin and methadone, it has a ceiling effect for some effects, including respiratory depression, but retains misuse potential. Side effects include respiratory depression, sleepiness, adrenal insufficiency, QT prolongation, low blood pressure, allergic reactions, constipation, and opioid addiction. It may increase seizure risk in susceptible people; opioid withdrawal after discontinuation is generally less severe than with other opioids. Safety during pregnancy is unclear, but use while breastfeeding is probably safe: infants receive approximately 1–2% of the maternal weight-adjusted dose. The compound acts as a partial agonist of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR), exhibiting approximately 48% maximal efficacy in the reported functional assay. Its signaling profile is biased toward G-protein-mediated signaling, with comparatively weak recruitment of β-arrestins.
== Known members == For a key to the single-letter sequences, see Amino acid § Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties. All peptides sequences are assumed to start with NH2- and end with -COOH, unless otherwise stated.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.
Its sequence corresponds to the 4-10 region of corticotropin extended by three residues. This fragment lacks the region responsible for adrenal steroid release, so it is explored for neural rather than hormonal effects. The relationship explains the compound's classification among ACTH-derived peptides.
It holds approval in Russia for several neurological indications as a nasal spray or drop formulation. Regulatory agencies in the United States and the European Union have not approved it. Products sold elsewhere are generally labeled for research use only.
Dry powder is usually kept at about -20 degrees Celsius for long-term storage and at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius for short working periods. Containers should stay sealed and protected from light and moisture to limit degradation.