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Last reviewed on 2025-12-05. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular weight | ~813.9 Da (free heptapeptide) | N-acetylated form is about 42 Da heavier |
| Residue count | 7 (heptapeptide) | Four residues from ACTH(4-10), three added |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Usually supplied lyophilized |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in DMSO and polar organic solvents |
| Related parent fragment | ACTH(4-10) | Parent motif is Met-Glu-His-Phe |
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
== History == Historically, the fish processing methods used for human consumption have been: fresh, canned, frozen, smoked or dehydrated - all of which would be used as a whole food rather than as an ingredient in other foods. Additionally, an industrial fish industry exists where whole fish and by products from fish processing have been cooked and dehydrated to form a product termed fish meal, which is used for animal feed, pet food and fish feed. With the evolution of refining and processing technology and expanded research on the nutrition of fish proteins and peptides, a new industry has developed for the specific purpose of producing a fish protein powder for human consumption with the intent of reaching new ingredient uses and markets. The FPP end product is now used in a variety of food ingredient applications including sports nutrition, food additives and supplements, all of which depend on the finished fish protein powder produced such that it is hygienically safe and also meets sensory requirements of taste, odor and function in prepared foods.
=== Glucose tolerance === Middle aged (10‐month‐old) mice fed a high fat diet gained body weight and fat mass in the lower parts of their bodies and had impaired glucose tolerance as defined in glucose tolerance tests. Adding α-ketoglutarate to the drinking water of these mice inhibited the development of these changes. These results suggest that drinking the α-ketoglutarate-rich water replenished the otherwise diminished supplies of α-ketoglutarate in middle aged mice; the replenished supply of α-ketoglutarate thereby became available to suppress obesity and improve glucose tolerance. A study in rats feed a low fat or high fat diet for 27 weeks and drinking α-ketoglutarate-rich water for the last 12 weeks of this 27 week period decreased their fat issue masses and increased their whole-body insulin sensitivity as defined in glucose tolerance tests. Rats fed either of these diets but not given α-ketoglutarate-rich water did not show these changes. This study indicates that α-ketoglutarate regulates body fat mass and insulin sensitivity in rats as well as mice.
1993/3066) International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3067) International Transport of Goods under Cover of TIR Carnets (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3068) Children (Homes, Arrangements for Placement, Reviews and Representations) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3069) Education (Publication of Schemes for Financing Schools) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3070) Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3071) Education (Acquisition of Grant–maintained Status) (Transitional Functions) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3072) Education (Grant–maintained Schools) (Loans) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3073) Personal Protective Equipment (EC Directive) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3074) Prison (Amendment) (No. 2) Rules 1993 (S.I. 1993/3075) Young Offender Institution (Amendment) Rules 1993 (S.I. 1993/3076) Non–Domestic Rating Contributions (Wales) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3077) A1 Trunk Road (Holloway Road, Islington) (Prescribed Routes) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/3078) Fire Services (Appointments and Promotion) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3079) Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment and Further Provisions) 1993 (S.I. 1993/3080) Police (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3081) Non-Domestic Rating Contributions (England) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/3082) Boiler (Efficiency) Regulations 1993 (S.I.
SQM commissioned a life-cycle analysis (LCA) which concluded that water consumption for SQM's lithium hydroxide and carbonate is significantly lower than the average consumption by production from the main ore-based process, using spodumene. A more general LCA suggests the opposite for extraction from reservoirs. The majority of brine based production is in the "lithium triangle" in South America.
=== Climate === Raleigh has a four-season humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa). Winters are generally cool, with a normal January daily mean temperature of 41.9 °F (5.5 °C). On average, there are 69 nights per year that drop to or below freezing, and only 2.7 days that fail to rise above freezing. Raleigh receives an average annual rainfall of 46.07 in (117.0 cm). Annual and monthly temperature and precipitation data are in chart below, based on 1991–2020 climate data. February is the driest month, with an average of 2.78 in (70.6 mm) of precipitation. Precipitation is well distributed around the year, with a slight maximum between July and September, owing to generally frequent, sometimes heavy, showers and thunderstorms, and the threat of tropical weather systems (primarily from August to early October) bringing heavy rainfall. Summers are hot and humid, with a normal July daily mean temperature of 80.5 °F (26.9 °C). There are 48 days per year with highs at or above 90 °F (32 °C). Autumn is similar to spring overall but has fewer days of rainfall, but greater potential for extremely heavy rainfall in a one/two-day period, owing to occasional threat from tropical weather systems (hurricanes and tropical storms) packing torrential rainfall. In September 1999, Raleigh recorded its wettest month ever, with over 530 mm or 21 in of rain, due to torrential rainfall from tropical weather systems, most notably Hurricane Floyd on September 15–16.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
There is agreement in the research community that tau contributes strongly to dementia in Alzheimer's disease. Tauopathy occurs in over 30 diseases in addition to Alzheimer's disease. In addition, mutations of the gene for tau (MAPT) cause neurodegenerative disorders known as primary tauopathies, but these diseases occur in the absence of Aβ proteopathy. Current evidence thus favors abnormal Aβ as the prime mover of Alzheimer's disease. However, the Aβ hypothesis and tau hypothesis are not mutually exclusive, in that abnormalities of Aβ initiate the disease and tauopathy is required for its complete expression.
sIBM causes progressive muscle weakness. How sIBM affects individuals is variable, including the age of onset (which generally varies from the forties upwards) and rate of progression. Because of this variability, there is no "textbook case". Common early symptoms include frequent tripping and falling and difficulty going up stairs. Foot drop in one or both feet can occur. Part of the cause for this dysfunction is the early involvement of the quadriceps muscles. Weakness of the tibialis anterior muscle is responsible for foot drop. Another common early symptom is trouble manipulating the fingers, such as difficulty with tasks such as turning doorknobs or gripping keys. Weakness of finger flexion and ankle dorsiflexion occurs early. sIBM also preferentially affects the wrist flexors, biceps, and triceps. During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes difficult to bend down, reach for things, and walk quickly. Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture. Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down. Although pain has not been traditionally part of the "textbook" description, many patients report severe muscle pain, especially in the thighs.
Noriega married Felicidad Sieiro in the late 1960s, and the couple had three daughters: Lorena; Sandra; and Thays. Sieiro had been a school teacher, and Noriega a member of the National Guard. Her family, of Basque heritage, was reported to have been unhappy with the marriage. Noriega was repeatedly unfaithful to his wife, who at one point expressed a desire for a divorce, though she changed her mind later.
=== Psychotropic effects === Bromantane is described primarily as a mild stimulant and anxiolytic. It is also said to possess anti-asthenic properties. Bromantane is reported to improve physical and mental performance, hence it could be considered a performance-enhancing drug. Bromantane has been found to lower the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-17 and IL-4 and to normalize behavior in animal models of depression, and may possess clinical efficacy as an antidepressant. It has also been found to increase sexual receptivity and proceptivity in rats of both sexes, which was attributed to its dopaminergic actions. It has been proposed that bromantane may suppress prolactin levels by virtue of its dopaminergic properties as well. Bromantane has been found to "agonize" amphetamine-induced stereotypies in vivo, suggesting that it might potentiate certain effects of other stimulants. The stimulant effects of bromantane onset gradually within 1.5–2 hours and last for 8–12 hours when taken orally.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Diagnostic microbiology is the study of microbial identification. Since the discovery of the germ theory of disease, scientists have been finding ways to harvest specific organisms. Using methods such as differential media or genome sequencing, physicians and scientists can observe novel functions in organisms for more effective and accurate diagnosis of organisms. Methods used in diagnostic microbiology are often used to take advantage of a particular difference in organisms and attain information about what species it can be identified as, which is often through a reference of previous studies. New studies provide information that others can reference so that scientists can attain a basic understanding of the organism they are examining.
Two pathways for PLP are currently known: one requires deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate (DXP), while the other does not, hence they are known as DXP-dependent and DXP-independent. These pathways have been studied extensively in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, respectively. Despite the disparity in the starting compounds and the different number of steps required, the two pathways possess many commonalities. The DXP-dependent pathway:
== Detection == The polyhistidine-tag can also be used for detecting a protein via anti-polyhistidine-tag antibodies, which can be useful for subcellular localization, ELISA, western blotting and other immuno-analytical methods. Alternatively, in-gel staining of SDS-PAGE or native-PAGE gels with fluorescent probes bearing metal ions can be used for detection of a polyhistidine tagged protein.
=== Direct methods === Water content can be directly measured using a drying oven. The oven-dry method requires drying a sample (of soil, wood, etc.) in a special oven or kiln and checking the sample weight at regular time intervals. When the drying process is complete, the sample's weight is compared to its weight before drying, and the difference is used to calculate the sample's original moisture content. Gravimetric water content, u, is calculated via the mass of water
== Function == This gene is a member of the Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein (IGFBP) family and encodes a protein with an IGFBP domain and a type-I thyroglobulin domain. The protein binds both insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) I and II and circulates in the plasma. Binding of this protein prolongs the half-life of the IGFs and alters their interaction with cell surface receptors. Alternate transcriptional splice variants, encoding different isoforms, have been characterized.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, a seven-residue peptide. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, and Pro-Gly-Pro is added at the C-terminus. N-acetylated versions also appear in the literature and differ in mass.
Semax is a synthetic analog of the ACTH(4-10) fragment rather than a copy of the full hormone. Truncation plus the added tail removes the steroidogenic portion of ACTH. That distinction explains why it is studied for nervous-system effects instead of adrenal stimulation.
It is registered as a prescription product in Russia and has been used there clinically, chiefly by the intranasal route. No approval exists in the United States or the European Union. Availability elsewhere typically falls under research-chemical distribution, with varying purity documentation.
It is described as a synthetic analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Its sequence differs from that fragment and includes two proline residues, which influence stability and behaviour in solution.